John Bill Dissertation: Management Coaching Within A Local Government Environment

Management Coaching Within A Local Government Environment

1. Abstract
The Housing and Social Services Department in the London Borough of Merton (LBM) is faced with an ever-increasing agenda for change and improvement. It employs 1,000 people with an expenditure budget of £60m. A reliance on traditional methods of training pervades, in part due to budgetary restraints and organisational cultural barriers. The organisational development challenge is to align successful learning strategies with operational needs.

These needs are subject to constant change as a result of external factors such as the introduction and publication of Comprehensive Performance Assessment, for all councils. This includes a ‘rating’ system based on performance for both Housing and Social Services, with central government linking ‘financial freedoms’ to improvements in services. Separate external reviews by the Social Services Inspectorate and the Audit Commission reveal a department able to learn, but one which has human resource weaknesses.

The corporate report on the LB of Merton by the Audit Commission under the auspices of the Comprehensive Performance Assessment found “Merton is a council that is prepared to learn. The Council realises it needs to change in a number of aspects and has made some difficult decisions. At the moment it has a culture of reaction and lacks a systematic self - review process to learn what works. It is too early to see a track record of sustained approaches to change”[1] External reviews also indicated a reluctance to change from some members and managers.

Middle managers within Housing and Social Services have a key role to play in ensuring that the department continues to evolve for the better. However, faced with recruitment difficulties, budgetary restraints and increasing pressures resulting from the change agenda, some managers are finding it difficult to allow time for personal growth or to establish their most appropriate development. With so many other pressures, some view learning and development as an increased burden on their work commitments. This has a detrimental affect on organisation and individual improvement at all levels. This dissertation aims to analyse the use of management coaching as a tool to facilitate change and growth for individual managers and organisations. The results of this analysis will be used to identify the potential contribution of management coaching to the organisational development of the Housing and Social Services department. The research rationale of this project is based on the premise that whilst there is considerable coaching activity in private organisations, together with considerable literature, there appears to be no research examining it as a learning and development tool which specifically examines the concept in local government.

The study begins by describing the activities and culture of LBM, particularly the management development activity. A literature review subsequently analyses the research and perceptions of coaching as a management development technique. This is followed by details of research conducted primarily within LBM and also in an external organisation. An initial pilot exercise involving semi-structured interviews with ten middle managers was undertaken to analyse current understanding of organisational and personal development and the use of coaching within the Housing and Social Services Department (Appendix A). After analysis of the data, a separate questionnaire was developed for ninety-five middle managers across the department, in order to elicit views on the effects of change, the current methods of learning within H&SS and the introduction of coaching as a development tool. To ‘enrich’ the research, a comparison case study with a major UK supermarket chain and their approach to organisational development, including coaching, was conducted.

This is a necessary prelude for the specific investigation of the potential of coaching, as coaching will have to develop as part of the system.

1. What are the current management development practices at L B M and Housing and Social Services, and are these practices congruent with the continual need for improvement within the borough?

2. What is coaching? Is it an appropriate form of learning for managers in Housing and Social Services, and if implemented would it improve the development of managers?

¨ There is evidence that hierarchical organisations do not ‘strategically fit’ with the learning organisation ideology.

¨ The lack of an overall organisation development strategy linked to the change agenda leads to an inability to address new issues, and identify solutions.

¨ Corporate HR is perceived as a ‘barrier’ to, rather than a ‘partner’, in change.

¨ There is a need for an integrated performance management system, with clear links to organisational objectives, and a ‘robust’ evaluation process, to be used in association with the learning and development strategy.

¨ Management coaching will have to ‘justify’ its position as a learning and development tool in the local government environment. Training budgets must be satisfied that this is an investment.

¨ The evidence suggests that management coaching is an effective learning tool in a changing environment.

¨ Coaching can assist both individuals and department by creating a more positive outlook, with staff taking personal responsibility for their learning.

¨ A management-coaching programme can provide flexibility for the department’s learning and development strategy. This can only be effective if integrated as part of an overall progressive learning strategy.

¨ Coaching can provide an opportunity for the department to identify and nurture future potential managers.

¨ Coaching can open up the department and individuals to a variety of new ideas and experiences. This is contrary to the current position where a degree of learning isolation takes place.

¨ The production of a clear LBM corporate organisation development strategy, linked to business objectives.

¨ The appointment of an organisational development manager. The promotion and enhancement of the role of corporate HR within LBM.

¨ The introduction of a ‘pilot’ management-coaching scheme within H&SS, as a component of the management development programme.

¨ The implementation of an accredited coaching skill programme for managers within H&SS.

¨ The subsequent implementation of an introductory coaching scheme to support junior managers within H&SS.

¨ The use of a 360-degree feedback process for all managers within H&SS to assess the impact of the management development programme.

2.1 The completion of this dissertation would not have been possible without the encouragement and guidance of both the University of Surrey, Roehampton and Professor John Elliott, whose recommendations and ideas led me to re-evaluate and improve both my data gathering and final report. Thanks are also extended to the managers and staff within the London Borough of Merton Housing and Social Services Department, in providing both the time and facilities to exercise the one-to-one interviews and data gathering. Thanks also to Susie Stevely & Elizabeth Adams for supporting statistical analysis of the data, Eileen North, Rowan Jackson, and, finally, Nick Blandford & Rebecca Ivers from Safeway Plc for the opportunity to discuss a creative and enlightening approach to organisational coaching.

2.2 Finally, I would like to thank my wife Rosie, for her dedication, advice and encouragement in supporting my efforts in completing both the course, and the final dissertation. My achievements are entirely due to her inspiration.

4.1 The London Borough of Merton lies in the outer part of south-west London, adjoining the boroughs of Wandsworth, Croydon, Sutton, and Kingston and is a public sector authority. It covers 3,796 hectares with a population of approximately 190,000. Unemployment is low at 3.8%, compared to the London average of 7.3%, and the Council is the largest employer in the area with 4,600 employees. The Council consists of five departments; Education, Leisure & Libraries, Housing & Social Services, Finance, and Chief Executives and Environmental Services, and has a total budget of £172 million (gross £322 million) for the 2002/03 financial year. The Housing and Social Services Department is one of the few existing joint service departments within London’s thirty-two local councils. The Department currently employs 1,000 staff, and gross expenditure is £60m (2002/03). Within the boundaries there are serious socio-economic contrasts; Village and Hillside wards (Wimbledon) are in the top 5% most affluent nationally, whilst Lavender, Pollards Hills, and Phipps Bridge wards are ranked amongst the top 15% most income deprived in

England

4.2 Like all local authorities, LBM is subject to league tables, external reviews and reports of its services, The recent dramatic increase in the use of league tables and reviews has a direct bearing on organisational change and improvement and, consequently, management development. The following section aims to focus on the external factors that drive change and direction within the organisation. To consider existing responses to these factors, and to examine the current management development structure. Only in considering these issues can the nature of required changes and improvements be acknowledged.

4.3 The description of the context in which Housing and Social Services operates may be divided into the following: -

d) Recommendations from reviews which impact on organisational development and HR issues

Both Housing & Social Services and LBM have been subject to numerous external reviews in the past eighteen months. These include, for H&SS, a Social Services Inspectorate critical review of Children’s Services, a Joint Review (Social Services Inspectorate/The Audit Commission) of all social services and an external review of the housing business and development plans. For the authority, there has been a requested, Improvement and Development Agency for local government (IDeA) peer review of services and a corporate assessment conducted by the Audit Commission. Both reviews found a resistance to change amongst some members and managers. External reviews will continue during the early part of 2003, with social service inspections of adoption, fostering, and services for vulnerable people.

Central Government believes ‘that councils, members and officers all have the support they need to build their capacity to deliver strong and confident community leadership and high quality services’ (December 2001)[2]. They consider that the use and national publication of ‘league tables’ in the form of Comprehensive Performance Assessments will ‘drive’ the improvements to services. The five divisions of performance – excellent (councils with four stars), good (three stars), fair (two stars), weak (one star), poor (no stars) - will shape the government’s financial grant system allocation. Councils placed in a top performing division will find a relaxation of government grant allocation, and an opportunity to run aspects of ‘poor’ council services. LBM received a two star ‘weak’ rating in December 2002. Housing services received a two star rating for its performance. Social Services within Merton have improved. The Government’s Star ratings of Social Services, published in the national media (The Guardian – Wednesday 29/5/02 – maximum of four stars) identified Merton social services as being one of the ten worst social services departments in the country. However, a recent update of the ratings (November 2002) gave the department a one star rating (one star – serving people well, with uncertain prospects for improvement). This rating does indicate an improvement in a very short period of time. However, the allocation of both a ‘weak’ view of the council, and the ratings of housing and social services, clearly indicates a need for significant improvements, and changes to existing practices.

The Government’s White Paper Modernising Social Services (1998) & the subsequent Health Act (1999) cleared the way for closer partnerships between health and local authorities, leading to a more integrated service. As a result, several new independent bodies have been established by the Government to oversee a radical change to the management and delivery of services, both from a business and individual perspective. The Government has also produced A Quality Strategy for Social Care (2000) which includes the following bodies and frameworks that have been set up to improve quality: -

¨ National Care Standards Commission - to oversee the standards of services in both the public and private social care sectors;

¨ National Service Frameworks – to set national standards and service models jointly implemented by health and social services;

¨ General Social Care Council – the professional body of the industry set up to regulate the social care workforce for the first time, through the use of maintained registers of nationally qualified staff and the introduction of social work standards.

Local government is therefore faced not only with ‘best value’ reviews, but constant change from many areas. As the Audit Commission summarised, attitudes to public services have changed over the past 30 years, to one which now “accepts an underlying societal responsibility for good public services, but increasingly expects empowered individuals to take responsibility for themselves” [3]. Increasing use of performance indicators, external reviews of local services, battles between local autonomy and central control, and an obvious gap between what the public want to see as public services and what they are willing to pay for, are all issues faced by the public sector.

The H&SS department currently has a turnover rate of 23%, against a national turnover rate in the public sector of 13.6% (2000/01). The Audit Commission reported that the average cost of recruiting a member of staff is £3,456. According to the Commission in a survey of former public sector employees, 68% thought that the image of their former profession would discourage people from entering the job[4]. Furthermore, from the same survey, 55% said that the number of changes and new initiatives had made a significant impact on their decision to leave. As the Audit Commission summarised in its report, “The negative impact of the pace of change was seen in our focus groups as a specifically public sector problem”, and interestingly stated that managers present change as “an external imposition, rather than a locally owned priority”. They note “it is line managers, not the HR department, that impact most on the immediate work environment of staff”.

Interestingly, the Local Government Employers’ Organisation social services workforce survey for 2001, as reported in Community Care Magazine (12-18/9/02) concurrently expressed that “The number of people working in social service departments is almost 3% lower than the previous year. The average vacancy rate is 9.4%, with vacancies in children and family field social worker posts at 11.3%”. The vacancy rate across H&SS is 23%. “Only 2% of social services departments’ budgets for employees was spent on training last year – just £97m out of 4.7bn”. The current percentage for social services LBM is 0.8%.

A CIPD survey indicates the nature and pace of change within the public sector is undermining the ‘psychological contract’ between employee and organisation. The survey, reported in People Management (21 November 2002) gave a clear indication of a fall in job satisfaction in the public sector because of the change agenda. Lack of organisational support was one of the key citations affecting the health of those working within the public sector.

d) Recommendations from reviews which impact on organisational development and HR issues

An independent review took place in March 2002, as part of the Corporate Governance inspections under the auspices of The Audit Commission. The final report published in July 2002 confirmed the positive need for change and support; for improvement from both staff and members, and identified developments in management training to engage staff in the change agenda[5]. The Audit Commission reported on several factors that were inhibiting improvements. These included: -

¨ The Council has a culture of departmentalism (‘silos within silos’) and this restricts its’ ability to address emerging big issues and identify appropriate joined-up solutions;

¨ Service delivery not being supported by a comprehensive performance management system.

A number of the reports’ recommendations were reflected in the findings of earlier reviews. These included: -

¨ The need to develop an inclusive style of community leadership and to develop consistent plans and decisions to deliver the vision;

In September 2002, the Joint Review of Merton Social Services was published and presented to members of the council and the community, the Chief Executive, the Director of H&SS, Heads of Services, managers, and staff[6]. The review, conducted by the Social Services Inspectorate and The Audit Commission, investigated all aspects of social care services within Merton, through the testimony of stakeholders and statistical analysis. The final report acknowledged that the authority had suffered from a lack of strategic direction at senior management, corporate, and political levels for several years before the arrival of the current senior management team. On HR developments the review found and suggested: -

¨ Human resource support for managing change has not been effective in the past;

¨ The Authority should ensure that appraisals link Personal Development Plans with team and service plans, and inform the training plan. Individual targets should be linked to team, service, and ultimately departmental and corporate priorities.

The increasing role of external reviews of public services, coupled with performance targets and expectations of partnerships and organisational change intensifies the importance of the role of middle managers throughout local government. As previously noted, line managers not the HR department impact most on the immediate work environment of staff. These managers are subject to time pressures brought about by the continual change agenda. They require organisational support to enable them to best manage the new and challenging environment in which they work. There should not be an expectation that they already have the required skills. A sense of ‘de-motivation’ can occur without the provision of support to learn and progress. This has an impact on recruitment and retention and, subsequently, organisational development. Such ‘de-motivation’ is a contributory factor to some managers within the department, not inclined to discover how their behaviour is incongruent with the vision and plans set by senior management. This leads to a discrepancy between individual/organisational behaviour and organisational values. This, together with increased change and a bewildering sense of action planning caused by different use of reviews for the organisation and individual departments, has led to the question of what methods of training and development can be used to manage this change agenda? -

¨ Can management coaching assist the department in managing the change agenda, both for operational and individual needs?

The external reviews relating to LBM and its’ Housing & Social Services department indicate an organisation that is improving and is moving forward, but also one which is ‘saddled’ with poor HR practices, a performance management system as yet untested, and unclear career progression. The role of the public sector employee is changing as Beardwell & Holden (2001) foresaw, “Where once the concern was with due process and comparability, the focus is now on ‘performativity’, that is, making additional investment, including pay, conditional upon demonstrable increase in efficiency and effectiveness” [7].

Across all local government, many HR units are grappling with the problems of management development in an arena of constant change. An annual survey of learning and development amongst local authorities indicates the increase in levels of training expenditure, £374m (2000/2001) compared with £296m (1999/2000), but highlights a downturn in management development training; 14% (2000/2001) from 15% (1999/2000). These figures are based on total employment headcount increasing in local government from 1.95m (1999/2000) to 2.06m (2000/2001), with labour turnover at 13.6% 2000/01 from 12.4% (1999/2000) [8].

Based on expenditure, the survey reported an increase in gross training expenditure per employee in local government from £152 (1999/2000) to £181 (2000/01). The survey recommended ‘All authorities should develop policies and strategies that encourage everyone in their workforce to engage in learning and development’.

To increase management development and improve the skills of all managers, LBM introduced Merton Management Competencies during 2001. These have been ‘piloted’ within Housing & Social Services during 2002, and are due to be implemented authority-wide during 2003. Housing and Social Services increased the budget for management training for 2002/3 from £30k to £80k.

The Improvement and Development Agency peer review inspection of the LBM (July 2001) found an organisation that is both capable of and willing to deliver change [9]. However, it was also noted that amongst some staff there was a feeling of workplace lethargy, which led to managers being reluctant to try new ideas. The Council subsequently adopted a number of principles to meet their strategic objectives and to deliver improvements in line with the peer review. Two of these principles are: -

¨ We aim to provide good value for the community with efficient and cost effective services through maximising resources, incorporating best practice, and utilising new technology and innovation

Progress has been made. Work is continuing on partnerships with other London Borough’s and new Intranet links. Joint bids for learning and development funding is streamlined and a new in-house training officer for IT soft skills has been appointed. In 2002, LBM introduced its first Management Competency Framework. Competencies were set at three levels to encompass different grades of managers and covered the following topics: -

Managing people (includes “Actively promotes the learning organisation and lifelong learning, and discourages a culture of blaming” at level 1–senior management, and the notion of “supporting the development of people through coaching, mentoring and advising” at level 2 –middle manager)[10]

In 2002, the H&SS department as part of the assessment centre process in measuring manager’s performance used the topics. No other department has since used the competencies in this format.

In August 2001, the H&SS Director acknowledged the need for change, and to clearly communicate her management philosophy introduced an annual ‘Vision, Values and Minimum Standards – Our Management Promise’. This document included the following three values: -

¨ Encouraging creativity and becoming a learning organisation - We will focus on our core activities, and promote innovative ideas for new services and different ways of doing things. We will learn from everything we do;

¨ Managing Performance – We will set thorough targets for our services and monitor our performance against them.

¨ Fostering leadership throughout the Department - We will share knowledge and authority, empowering our teams to lead and take decisions. We will develop the talent in our staff, enabling them to feel confident in their approach, and supported in their work

In introducing this document, the Director and her management team have shown a willingness to lead and provide a focus for learning. With the aid of a new Head of Information and Business Support, performance management is being instilled, senior management are receiving individual coaching, action learning has been adopted by middle managers and clear guidelines on a systematic induction process for the department have been produced. However, problems exist with the communication of the values, with managers claiming that they are unaware of the management standards that they are being judged by. There will also be future difficulties in introducing the concept of double-loop learning when there are presently two strands of organisational development taking place between the Department and the council as a whole. The H&SS Department, under the auspices of its’ director, is eager for organisational development to modernise both the quality of service and individual expertise. The department is subject to a pilot programme linked to organisational development. But the Council as a whole, is still coming to terms with the realisation that change is inevitable, and that management development is the key to assisting this process. There is, however, no organisational development strategy in place.

3. The management development structure and current costs at London Borough of Merton

Senior management development training in the past six years for LB of Merton managers has consisted of a top manager’s programme. It is conducted through Kingston University (50% of programme goes towards an MBA) for a selected band of six/seven heads of services. For middle managers, there is an in-house Diploma in Management programme, with selection made through grades. Currently, a small number of short generic one-day management courses covering soft skills e.g. appraisal, interviewing, and negotiation skills are taking place. Very little ‘reflective’ or team learning for managers to relate their responsibility to learn, or to meet organisational objectives has taken place within the council. The use of in-house programmes for management qualifications also inhibits networking and learning across the public and private sector, placing LB of Merton in an insular learning environment.

To aid the department’s recovery from both the SSI Inspection of Children’s Services, and the then ‘no star’ rating of its social services; a decision to implement a programme of management development was taken in May 2002. Housing and Social Services became the pilot for a wide range of organisational development and increased their training and development budget from £170k to £260k. This programme included executive coaching for five members of the Department management team, incorporating 360 degree feedback, and six one to one sessions with an external coach. The programme has proved popular and invaluable. Members of the management team appear to have been invigorated by their own willingness to ‘reflect’ on learning. Behaviour and values have already been explored. Issues in relation to office politics, time management, negativity within the department, and working together as a management team, have been identified as areas to investigate.

For middle managers, a series of action learning sets were devised. The sets ‘matched’ the Merton Management Competency Framework introduced in 2002. In addition, every community care and information and business support division manager completed a development centre series of interviews and in-tray exercises. These exercises judged the manager’s abilities to delegate, project plan priorities, and be creative in problem solving. On completion of the two-stage process, interviews and assessment, an external report was produced and an external consultant conducted a feedback session with each manager. This gave insight into the strengths and weaknesses of individual managers, which then informed the appraisal and generated a Personal Development Plan for each manager.

The action learning sets were held through facilitation by an external consultant and involved middle managers from across the Department. Ninety-five middle managers took part. Topic areas included: -

It is anticipated that the Council as a whole will introduce both the Merton Management Competency Framework and the supporting assessment programme during 2003, following a review of the ‘pilot’ exercise. However, a corporate organisational development manager is yet to be recruited. The Housing & Social Services Department is the only part of the organisation which has committed both financial investment and time into a management development programme for its middle managers.

Members of the H&SS management team have already voiced their approval of the executive coaching programme. A 360-degree feedback process from their peers and colleagues on their management skills based on the competency framework has been acknowledged as beneficial. The department management team faces difficult choices in the type of service required in both housing and children’s services in the future. The management skills in both these divisions will be severely examined as re-structures and changes to job roles take effect.

The H&SS department needs to review the learning and development programmes already set in place for middle managers, and seek out new ways in which to group them. Executive coaching has now been piloted within the H&SS management team. Is it appropriate to extend this programme, and what are the benefits of coaching as a learning method?

5.1 This review discusses the latest theories on the coaching phenomena introduced into the

in the past five years, supported within the context of learning and management development issues. It is particularly concerned with the local government change agenda and the possible use of coaching as a development tool. A number of strategic themes have emerged resulting from the academic literature that are relevant to the introduction of coaching within a local government context. These are considered as follows:-

4.The current implementation of coaching in companies and public authorities

The traditional hierarchy within local government does lead to problems in providing creative and innovative learning and development plans. A job description is the basis on which individual training needs are identified, irrespective of subsequent changes to work patterns, job role or the introduction of new technology. In Merton, for example, it is only in the past twelve months that a personal development plan has been introduced in line with the appraisal process. The increase of central government reliance on targets, performance indicators, league tables and quality audits has led to greater bureaucracy, and, to some extent, created a ‘straitjacket’ in seeking new methods of learning for organisations, as well as individuals. Central government may argue that ‘benchmarking’ and making comparisons with other authorities will lead to improvements. However, this form of learning from other organisations will be difficult to replicate, in some cases, when taking into account the values, beliefs, structures, and intellectual capacity for organisations seeking improvements.

The rigid hierarchy model has been the raison d’être for many years. This, as Corrigan, Hayes & Joyce point out, has two main faults[11]. Firstly, decisions are not taken at the middle of the organisation and secondly, without elements of decentralisation good ideas from line managers go to waste, having to be referred up the chain of command. Creativity and innovation are the lifeblood of organisation improvements. Osboune, Gaelber and Boyett (1997), identified this perceived lack of identity and power by middle managers with the suggestion of the introduction of an entrepreneurial manager in local government to overcome a feeling of disempowerment amongst middle managers[12]. This type of manager is one who does take risks, and who will work pro-actively with the organisation in developing capability and resources, but who is encouraged to take full responsibility for their actions. A small percentage of managers within the H&SS department view their role with ‘a job for life’ mentality. A ‘rigid’ hierarchy that does not support decentralisation, and thus, allow for managers’ ideas to be supported supplements this view. A ‘subservient’ culture remains in place with little scope for new ideas.

Aygyris & Schon (1995) and their theories on organisational learning, support the view that the H&SS Department fit’s the criteria of a single-loop learning environment - “the detection and correction of organisational error that permits the organisation to carry on its present policies and achieve its current objectives”[13]. This is in contrast to their second organisational model, involving double-loop learning “where organisational error is detected and corrected in ways that involve the modification of underlying norms, policies and objectives.”

In his seminal work, ‘Images of Organization’, Morgan using the metaphor of the brain as an organisation, identifies aspects of learning through error elimination at every stage of a process, and the use by organisations of ‘double-loop’ learning to question the relevance of operating norms[14]. McKenna, however, advised that metaphors should be used in a limited sense, because there is a danger of over-extending the metaphor in an organisational context, and making it ineffectual[15]. In essence, Morgan and the Association of Directors of Social Services, through their human resource strategy, suggest that learning organisations must develop capacities that allow them to do the following [16]: -

¨ Scan and anticipate change in the wider environment to detect significant variations;

¨ Develop an ability to question, challenge, and change operating norms and assumptions;

¨ Allow an appropriate strategic direction and pattern of organisation to emerge;

On a point that is highly relevant in local government, Morgan acknowledges the need to achieve those aims. Organisations must evolve designs that encourage the skilled adoption of ‘double-loop’ learning, and avoid single-loop learning, thus avoiding traditional management control systems and defensive attitudes of organisational members.

Within the double loop learning organisation, managers will act on information, debate issues, and respond to change, whilst being prepared to change themselves and learn from others. Within this context, local government managers, in the view of Corrigan, Hayes and Joyce, (1999) “will be encouraged to develop a higher degree of self-reflexivity. But if a manager cannot take responsibility for their own self appraisal and development, their capacity to take responsibility for others must be regarded as problematic”

Interestingly, Collins, through his research of good to great companies in the USA, noted that great companies obtained the right people first, sought to remove the wrong people, and then identified where the company needed to go [17]. This is difficult for a hierarchical and traditional local government organisation to adhere to, especially recruiting in a market place that utilises national local government pay rates, where staff retention is an issue and redundancies are uncommon. Local authorities are also bound by regulation by central government, and, therefore, do not have the freedoms that a private company may have.

The traditional organisational model of local government is changing, albeit slowly, for example, with greater use of partnerships. Housing and Social Services is in the vanguard of this movement with health services and private sector care organisations. An understanding of some of the learning techniques adopted within these two sectors e.g. coaching, career ladders, development centres for leadership and use of new technology for learning will need to be identified and utilised, if the department is to continue with its development. LBM does require an organisational development strategy that will overcome the rigid structure, and the whole issue of learning needs to be evaluated.

Theoretical organisation models have been challenged for their omission of human behaviours. As McKenna noted, the Weber ideal model of a bureaucratic organisation (mainly found in the public sector) in which the structure (the means) is designed to accomplish organisational objectives (the ends), is fundamentally flawed because of its inability to take account of human characteristics. This is especially relevant in the areas of adaptation to rapid change, adherence to strict rules, when flexibility is required, and when there is an inability to use informal work groups during times of needs because of structure. This inability to be flexible has limited the department’s ability to learn.

As previously noted, the H&SS Director communicated her management philosophy with the introduction of an annual ‘Vision, Values and Minimum Standards – Our Management Promise’. This document included the principle that the department would “Encourage creativity and becoming a learning organisation”

The concepts of the ‘learning organisation’ (Ulrich) have been examined by Senge, and more notably within the public sector, through (Ed) Cook, Staniforth and Stewart. The Association of Directors of Social Services decided to incorporate this philosophy within their Human Resource Strategy 2002. This document identifies social services development through the use of knowledge management; practice/evidence based training, coaching, and mentoring as key components of a HR strategy for the future of social care. Theoretically, Ulrich noted the need for HR to define an organisational architecture that could best tap market opportunities, and see itself as an agent of continuous transformation. But the difficulty with this approach, certainly within local government, is ensuring that behaviour reflects the strategy. Indeed, many theorists argue that ‘a learning organisation’ demands trust and involvement and these two commodities are rare in organisations, with commitment usually replaced by compliance. Garratt also noted in organisations that middle managers appeared to block progress of a ‘learning organisation’ concept to protect self-interest e.g. to protect specialisation and division, and not to harm promotion prospects. Coopey (1995) added to this belief, he notes, “power relations in organizations often mean that a person’s learning is harboured not shared”[18]. Indeed, The Audit Commission (2001) concurred with Wallace (1997); “that there are too many seemingly immovable structures, cultures, and externally imposed rules and regulations within the public service environment, to make the ‘learning company’ a constructive target to aim for” [19].

These theories highlight the problems within the public sector of cultivating a learning organisation. In the last twelve months the H&SS department has begun to invest in learning and development for managers with the aid of executive coaching for the management team and action learning sets. The aim is to support employees and provide a creative approach to learning. However, training and development within the council for generic soft skills for managers e.g. appraisal, supervision, recruitment and selection, and presentation skills is centred on traditional one or two day learning events, with very little scope for creative methods of learning. This traditional approach creates problems including that of poor attendance, with places left unfilled, resulting in poor value for money. Indeed, this appears to be a common problem within the UK. A recent survey, by Cambridge on-line learning, reported that 20% of

business training budgets are being wasted, with employees failing to attend designated business courses. To combat this problem, the department will start to issue financial penalties in 2003/04 to an individual’s section for any failure to inform the training section of any reason for non-attendance prior to the course. More importantly, creative methods of learning e.g. shorter sessions, management master classes, use of CD-ROM, job shadowing are being considered for the next learning and development programme.

There is no doubt that investment in training and development has increased within the Department. The Director is committed in placing human resources to the forefront of the campaign in improving both the qualities of service, and individual skills. Evidence suggests that the department has shown a willingness to change, but there appears to be a reluctance to ‘embrace’ or change behaviour towards the concepts of the learning organisation. Can coaching assist managers with this change process? It is within this environment that the learning context of coaching is examined.

Learning within local government for middle managers has become increasingly difficult to maintain. Schramm reported that both managers and learners in the UK do not have the time or inclination to learn and have little idea on how to learn effectively[20]. As Reynolds expresses, teaching people to learn is key[21]. A relaxed learning state coupled with a multi-sensory approach, ensuring that learning is recorded in different parts of the brain, will engender a positive experience. Greenfield acknowledges the idea that multiple parts of the brain work on one task, rather than the common left/right split scenario providing an additional example[22]. However, she highlights the impact that new technology will have on learning in the future, and the way thinking processes will alter. Greenfield essentially believes that access to information will become quicker, and change the way we think and learn with increased access to factual data. A number of these traditional learning methods and theories are considered in this section. According to this argument, organisations will also be required to be flexible, adaptable, and offer choice to their employees; a view endorsed by Gratton (– and her view of future democratic organisations) [23]. In the last year the CIPD has produced a research report on ‘The change agenda and how do people learn’, that argued that learning styles are being updated due to the introduction of E-Learning and the pace of change[24]. This implies that the nature of learning and the pace of technological change will lead the department in seeking new methods of learning over and above traditional courses.

The traditional ‘learning as behaviour ‘ theory (B.F Skinner), in stimulating the learner to perform an action again and again through the use of set rewards and reinforcement of the learning context, has been the standard ‘classroom type approach for developing skills. The issue with this type of ‘learning’ approach is that it stifles creativity, and, in a serious change of environment, does not prepare learners to deal with new problems and issues. Management coaching maybe a viable alternative through its provision of flexible and creative learning solutions discussed between the coach and manager.

Currently, a more popular type of learning; ‘Cognitive’ (Gagne, Piaget and Bloom) initiated the process of understanding and internalising the principles and facts about the world around us. According to Riding & Raynor, (1998) this ‘style’ is represented as “an individual’s preferred and habitual approach to organising and representing information”, and they note two basic dimensions[25]. Firstly, a wholist-analytic dimension – whether an individual tends to organise information into wholes or parts theories, and secondly, a verbal-imagery dimension – whether an individual is inclined to represent information during thinking verbally or in mental pictures. In line with the theories of Festinger, (Cognitive Dissonance), in which the individual comes to terms with experiences that do not comply with their own mental models; Individuals seek consistency and reduce the dissonance between their beliefs and experience. This approach leads to individual adjustments in times of change, and large amounts of data can be passed to the learner. However, experience of ‘knowing that’ rather than ‘knowing how’ can lead to information recall, rather than actual learning. This may be viewed as a problem with the coaching learning style. Managers could be willing to learn about reflection and personal responsibility, but will they actually alter their behaviour to change? This suggests that the use of psychometric instruments would be useful in assisting managers in understanding how their behaviour affects their learning.

Another learning type that is steadily growing within professions in the public sector is ‘learning as knowledge construction’. This ‘constructivist approach’ fits nicely with the growth of the term ‘knowledge management’ in which knowledge is embraced and maintained by organisations. Government policies in improving the standards of learning frequently seek to use this type of learning to improve organisations and thereby increase the quality of service. Social care agencies have been keen to adopt the view that responsibility for learning is the domain of the individual, and thus, the focus of learning is through an employee’s own subjective viewpoint, memories, ideas and feelings. Both housing and social care professional bodies have sought to adopt this ‘reflective’ approach via the introduction of learning logs; professional standards for the job roles and qualifications matched with elements of self-development. Management coaching fits within this new learning agenda through the one-to-one questioning style of the coach, encouraging and analysing responses.

One of the aspects of life within the Housing and Social Services Department is that recruitment is locally based. The Council is the biggest employer in the community. Many H&SS staff reside locally and remain with the department for a large number of years. An active and varied social network thrives, with team and professionals gatherings after work. Consequently, ‘the Learning as social practice’ as identified by the CIPD and the work of L.S Vygotsky, coupled with several social theorists; (Babdura, Lave and Wenger) have enjoyed success within Merton as ‘communities of practice as a source of learning’. The learning is, however, of a ‘how to be’ nature within Merton, instead of an outwardly external one. The model of action learning introduced in H&SS is intended to increase ‘learning as a social practice’. However, the challenge to continuous learning philosophies is hampered by a sense of comfort and stability. Managers are not challenged to improve their knowledge and skills. Subsequently, targets are missed, and performance management is seen as a ‘chore’ rather than a method of improving the organisation and the individual.

The department has recognised that managers need to be aware of their own learning styles and the concepts of ‘learning to learn’. This has been demonstrated through selective executive coaching and action learning, including the use of Honey & Mumford’s learning style questionnaires. The more traditional learning styles may ultimately fail the organisation, and the individual, by not giving personal ownership of learning and development to employees. It is not sufficient in an environment of continual change to progress by teaching staff how to perform set tasks, they must be equipped to be confident in successfully dealing with, and ‘actioning’ change, themselves.

The H&SS Department agreed to be the ‘pilot’ department for the Council for a number of HR initiatives. For example, the introduction of a framework for management competencies, the use of assessment centres for managers, executive coaching (incorporating 360-degree feedback) for the management team, and action learning. Senge (1990) suggested, “The organisation that will excel in the future will be those that can tap the commitment and capacity to learn of all people at all levels within them”[26]

The belief in introducing an action learning programme for ninety-five middle managers within the Department stemmed from the view that managers were being sent on courses that were providing a taught programme, but they were not learning. As Revans’ (1974) famous equation sought to deliver, “learning occurs through a combination of programmed knowledge and the ability to ask insightful questions”[27]. Based on this approach, and studying the existing sets, there is still reluctance on the part of a number of H&SS managers to share issues and problems, and self reflect. One of the key business strategies within H&SS and indeed, LBM is to change behaviour towards learning. As Heller (2002) advises “The object is to change behaviour, which in turn changes culture. Many cultural change programmes are constructed the other way around–culture first, behaviour second”[28].

Undoubtedly, in this era of fast technological enhancement, learning for work will be dependant on increased social networking and trainers will be required to concentrate on learning processes instead of content. This is a view shared by Schramm, and is indicative of a coaching methodology that investigates process rather than content[29]. Hirsch & Carter have identified flexibility in management development via modular delivery, in particular with the increased use of E-learning[30]. Although they acknowledge that personal learning such as team facilitation and coaching is labour intensive, it is particularly popular with managers. They also believe that a strong corporate architecture is required for management development and a flexible ‘just in time’ approach to meet short-term management requirements. The increase in the use of the ‘Knowledge economy’ has undoubtedly affected the importance of learning for organisational growth, both in terms of knowledge and relationship building. Subsequently, there is more emphasis on the individual to learn, and for a trainer to engender a spirit of learning within organisations if there is to be growth.

One way in which this type of learning can be approached is through the use of coaching. The role of the coach in helping managers to learn is extremely important, especially in a local government context. Schon argued, in his groundbreaking text for the ‘reflection in action’ approach to learning and for the individual to continually learn and ‘problem solve’ throughout a professional career[31]. He saw a coaches’ dialogue with an individual, as reflection in action, with the individual seeking to learn, and indicating areas of understanding or misunderstanding, whilst the coach advises, criticises, and provides explanation and descriptions. Key to the partnership, is verbal interaction. Whitmore & Downey note that the ability to be interrogative is an important skill for any coach coupled with a need for awareness and responsibility. The public sector is a completely different animal to the private sector, so a knowledge of its’ structures and roles would be invaluable for any coach working in local government.

There are of course issues broader than individual learning styles to take into account. The quality, rather than the breadth of management development within the UK raised serious doubts within central government concerning the ability of companies and institutions to compete successfully in the new knowledge economy, increasingly relevant to all sectors of business. Subsequently, the secretaries of state for both Education and Employment, and Trade and Industry, sought to raise the quality of managers and leaders through the formulation and introduction of the Council for Excellence in Management and Leadership in 2000. The Council was tasked with providing a strategy to ‘ensure that the UK has the managers and leaders of the future to match the best in the world’. Their first report provided a stark assessment[32]. On supplying management development and leadership skills, the Council found increasing management qualification awards in the last twenty years, but on the demand side, little enthusiasm to pursue these qualifications. Amongst a thirty point strategic plan for all UK businesses, covering both the supply and demand of management training, the following recommendations were made: -

¨ Establish a National Framework of Indicators of the

’s Management and Leadership capability;

¨ Develop plans to enhance in-house capacity of employers and increase capacity for informal learning.

The Council also noted ‘An unclear and unfocused demand for management and leadership development, which leads to dissatisfaction with provision and outcomes without sending clear signals as to what needs to change’. In addition its research indicated that management development in many guises e.g. project management, action learning, formal mentoring, cross-functional working, and MBAs, had little or no impact on the organisation without a clear change strategy. This is an important issue to note. Any learning initiatives undertaken by H&SS must change behaviour towards learning, and to be effective a clear change strategy must be in place. As there is no organisational development unit at present within LMB, this issue alone could undermine any learning initiatives put in place.

Finally, as the CIPD raise in their report on learning; it is clear that the climate of learning within a department or organisation is intrinsic. Systems and protocols that promote and enhance learning will encourage new kinds of behaviour. There is a real concern that, with the department introducing executive coaching, action learning, and development centres for managers, the rest of LBM will handicap the progress of learning within H&SS.

All of the evidence suggests the importance of organisational development and the role that training specialists have in offering creative learning methods. The pace of change is intensifying. Managers will need support, guidance and time to adjust to the change agenda, whilst being prepared to seek personal development for themselves. Within this environment, the use of coaching is an appropriate learning tool for middle managers.

According to Whitmore (1992) citing Gallway, “Coaching is unlocking a person’s potential to maximise their own performance. It is helping them to learn rather than teaching them”[33]. He adds, “Unless the manager or coach believes that people possess more capability than they are currently expressing, he will not be able to help them express it. He must think of his people in terms of their potential, not their performance”. An over-arching coaching philosophy identified by Gallway, and re-affirmed by Parsloe & Wray (2000) and Scoular (2002), is provided by the formula “Performance = Potential minus Interference”, and a coaches job is recognised as “primarily to release the self knowledge and potential that everyone possesses”. This philosophy has implications for the Housing & Social Services Department, as well as the LB of Merton. At present, it appears difficult to support and develop both managers and staff with potential. The current structure or learning strategies in the Council or department does not include any accelerated development programmes or succession planning for ‘budding’ staff or managers. There is a danger that if coaching is introduced, it would be used only as a process to change behaviour and aid performance, whilst supporting employees to achieve their potential may be diminished.

The removal of traditional forms of leadership, (i.e. command and control), to an enabling and supportive type model, has been serviced due to the demands of the flexible nature of 21^st century life as much as to changing working practices. Pressure to ‘achieve’ has placed a greater burden on collaboration in local government. In the view of Kilburg (2001), it is the very nature of learning, encapsulated in observation and reading, that has caused an unintentional evolution in the complex requirements of working within modern organisations, whilst formulating strategies to survive[34]. His three main advancements of the benefits that executive coaching can deliver to managers include: -

1. Understanding of the idea that individual’s will become self-organising, self-directed, and self-regulating (Following the theories of Tusk & Ashford 1994, Stacy 1996)

2. Mastery of the concepts and skills of reflective self-awareness (Following the theories of Schnook 1987, Argyles 1993, & Stunk & Zimmerman 1998)

On both self–awareness and self-efficacy, Kilburg believes that those who engage in these processes will “be more resilient as individuals and as teams, thus avoiding the effects of stress, burnout, and impairment”. In his book, Kilburg acknowledges the lack of empirical data currently available in the practice of coaching in the context of consultation. In his opinion, a working definition in this sphere of manager/consultant can be defined as “a helping relationship formed between a client who has managerial authority and responsibility in an organisation, and a consultant who uses a wide variety of behavioural techniques and methods to assist the client to achieve a mutually identified set of goals to improve his or her professional performance and personal satisfaction and, consequently, to improve the effectiveness of the client’s organisation within a formally defined coaching agreement.”

In his book, The handbook of Coaching, Hudson identifies three schools of western psychology from which a development coach would practice. These are: -

A Psychodynamic Orientation – In which an individual’s difficulties originate in childhood experiences, making them not consciously aware of the true motives or impulses behind their actions. Theories of Freud & Psychoanalysis;

A Cognitive Behavioural Orientation – A problem solving approach, with a respect for scientific values, and an understanding of cognitive learning that enables a re-programming of behaviour. Linked to the work of Watson, Pavlov and Skinner.

A Humanistic Orientation – Which involves an American version of the1950’s client or person-centred therapy that, investigates the ‘here-and-now’ experiences of the client.

Cognitive behavioural orientation is a version that would be beneficial for local government within the context of ‘learning to learn’. The CIPD have also suggested a move from the traditional instructor mode to the facilitator mode associated with cognitive learning approaches for individuals to internalise and demonstrate learning.

According to Peltier (2001)[35], the benefit of using the principles, research and wisdom of psychology in executive coaching is important. The general literature on executive coaching primarily agrees that this type of coaching can benefit both organisations and managers in three specific areas. Firstly, organisational change, where managers require new approaches. Secondly, skill developments for individual transition, as managers move into new positions via promotion. Thirdly, where managers themselves identify a special skill deficiency, or are made aware of it by others. Similarly, Whitmore believes that “Building awareness, responsibility and self belief is the goal of a coach.” A lack of self-belief is undoubtedly a factor with some middle managers within the department, as shown by the corresponding pilot interviews and results obtained from the questionnaire. Self-reflection has grown during the last ten to twelve years, and the growth of self-help and self-analysis has led to the increase and popularity of the use of Myers-Briggs, Covey’s 7 Habits of effective people, Neuro Linguistic Programming and Gestalt theories. All of these instruments and behavioural elements are utilised in coaching for “understanding the implications of the language used during coaching relationships”, and how “people cope with, and communicate to, themselves and others, about changes in behaviour” Parsloe & Wray (2000). Finally, as Peltier noted, some managers may have one or two dysfunctional behaviour patterns that require remedial assistance. Coaching can aid the necessary changes.

There are many different definitions of executive coaching. Carter (2001), in essence identifies executive coaching as a “one-to–one action learning process”, in which the objective includes “to support the executive in improving his or her performance, or establishing new behaviours”. Carter quotes Institute of Employment research, which identified the following six phases to executive coaching with which Peltier concurred: -

Getting started – Rapport and relationship building between coach and manager;

Reaching a shared understanding – re-visiting issues. Mainly, covering three aspects, Personal effectiveness, business and job requirements, & career and personal aspirations;

Planning Action – Identifying the changes required & actions needed to make the changes a reality;

This six phase process is similar to a popular Whitmore (1992) model, GROW, - Goals, Reality, Options and Wrap–up which is used in many organisations as the basis for coaching. The role of the coach within local government is gaining resonance, with a number of factors inherent in the coaches’ skills that can be brought to any organisation. Peltier (2001) summarises that coaching can help in situations where organisation change is needed, there is a skills development need for individual transitions (from technical expertise to a leader) and a specific skill requires improvement or an individual needs to resolve a specific issue. All these issues are relevant with regard to the LBM, and the H&SS department. A number of different theories can be called upon to enhance the learning experience. Peltier acknowledges the use of psychodynamic therapy (Freud), behavioural therapy (Skinner, Pavlov & Watson), person centred approach (Rogers), cognitive psychology and therapy (Ellis & Beck), and social psychology (Lewins & Festinger), within a coaching relationship. Of these, behaviour and person centred therapy appear the most prevalent and suitable amongst local government managers, where approaches to change and behaviour require examination.

Clearly, a number of skills are required of the coach in order for a manager to benefit from the sessions. Goleman, Boyatis & McKee (2002)[36] note that self- awareness and empathy are key elements. He or she must understand the theoretical models connected with the process of self-improvement. Four main coaching strategies have been identified (Peltier 2001). Firstly, use multi-point or 360 degree feedback – important to gain a view of peers or colleagues of the manager at an early stage of the coaching process to allow for the manager to reflect on areas for development. The coach must filter information and avoid a ‘halo’ effect from a manager’s contacts. Secondly, the one-to-one interview conducted over several months; this approach builds the empathy, rapport and confidence between coach and manager. The necessary ‘listening’ skills and the ability to question and analyse information is vital, as is the need for confidentiality. Thirdly, a direct behavioural observation, in which the coach ‘shadows’ the manager. This method can provide valuable insights and evidence of learning needs. Finally, the coach may use a number of objective assessment instruments, such as 16PF or Myers Briggs, to gain an indication of personality or preferences. In order to utilise objective assessment instruments, the coach must be familiar with the many different tools that are available and match an appropriate instrument with the manager. A coach has an obligation to have a clear understanding of the theoretical basis for the instrument. Executive coaching is a valuable exercise, with the use of 360-degree feedback and a large number of personality profiling tools available. However, in some quarters a view persists that a lack of in-depth knowledge and ability of the executive coach within the parameters of different types of organisations can limit the experience of the manager, Parsloe & Wray (2000).

Additionally, Whitmore acknowledges the need for a coach to build both awareness “the gathering and clear perception of the relevant facts and information, and the ability to determine what is relevant” and responsibility.“ When we truly accept, choose or take responsibility for our thoughts and our actions, our commitment to them rises and so does our performance”. This view is pertinent in organisations, both private and public, which are engulfed in a blame culture mentality. Organisational change is required, but hampered by managers and staff blaming others. As Whitmore suggests, “blame evokes defensiveness–defensiveness reduces awareness”.

Hall, Otazo & Hollenbeck (1999) interestingly found that gender did not affect the coaching relationship, but admitted that more research was required concerning the combined factors of race, culture and coaching[37]. They added their three concerns over executive coaching. Firstly, how will the growth in demand for this type of coach be met? Secondly, the use of internal HR practitioners involved, especially in a ‘dual’ role of coaching both senior managers and lower level managers. On this point Downey suggests two models of internal provision. The first, internal professional and development coaches connected to HR departments, but with a line to operation. The second, using managers as coaches, but in organisations with an open, matrix, and on-hierarchical model (a model not seen as yet in local government). Thirdly, issues of defining program scope and controlling costs appeared to be ‘getting lost’. They noted a rise in the use of private relationships between managers and external coaches as a career survival strategy and expressed concern that the external coaches who were being contracted had little understanding of the particular manager’s business.

Interestingly, Downey (2001) highlights the issue that increases in globalisation will undoubtedly lead to cultural changes in the traditionally Anglo-Saxon approach to coaching in other countries[38]. The increase of technology as a medium for communication in business e.g., e-mail and text messaging will supplement elements of coaching, but it will not replace the traditional, one-to-one meetings between manager and coach. Telephone coaching has been used by some organisations; it has proved useful as a support to a one-to-one coaching programme.

This literature analysis suggests that the department will find it difficult to implement a ‘learning organisation’ philosophy within the current structure and change agenda. A re-evaluation of learning techniques currently in use in the department is necessary, if organisation development is to achieve the required improvements. In essence, the research suggests the capacity for ‘cognitive’ coaching can assist the H&SS middle managers faced with increasing pressures and change. The methodology of one to one sessions, using questioning techniques, and action planning would suit the current environment. However, support would be required from managers to be engaged in the process for the value of coaching to be seen to the organisation. The method of coaching used, and the coaching background of those employed to take on the role must be fully considered, if maximum benefit is to be achieved.

4. THE CURRENT IMPLEMENTATION OF COACHING IN COMPANIES AND PUBLIC AUTHORITIES

Organisations constantly need to identify managers with potential, and to attract young graduates into management positions, in order to improve the quality of services, and aid creativity and innovation. The IDeA have already identified the potential of executive coaching for local government through an ‘initiative’ to place senior managers with external coaching companies (Local Government Coaching Scheme 2001). However, many local authorities are wary of making a large investment, possibly £3.5K for six one-to-one sessions, for a small number of middle managers, when they can pay between just £500 to £1,000 for a one day training course for up to twelve managers. This is re-enforced by the fact that little evaluation of the benefits that coaching can provide has been conducted in either the public or private sectors within the UK. Assuming that individual growth can occur, senior managers are concerned about the lack of benefits to the organisation, and indeed, are worried about developing managers and retaining them in a competitive public sector job market.

The dramatic surge in the use of coaching within the private sector has led to unscrupulous individuals calling themselves coaches, and thus, damaging the reputation of the coaching profession. Downey & others have already called for a national standard of coaching, and indeed, the CIPD are introducing their own national training certificate in coaching within the UK. However, the means of obtaining a coach within the UK is often currently conducted through ‘word of mouth’ and recommendations from others. This cannot be a sustainable method of recruitment, especially with the large costs involved in coaching.

In the arena of implementing coaching programmes, UK companies have embraced a ‘coaching’ philosophy as a means of boosting employee performance through the management lines. Downey, however, challenges this view as uncoordinated, and ‘in 90 per cent of cases, being lip service’[39]. He notes that strong management needs to be aligned with strong coaching in order for personal accountability to take effect. In supporting Downey’s view, a study by The School of Coaching (part of the work foundation) in the use of coaching within UK businesses found: -

¨ On average, line managers undergo a mere three days of training to develop their coaching skills;</

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and Social Service context}

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4. The London Borough of Merton/Housing and Social Service context

5. Literature Review

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and Social Service context}

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